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As measured by traditional markers, both in Australia and overseas, the participation of women academics in research is lower than for their male counterparts (Gale & Lindeman 1989; Stiver Lie & O'Leary 1990; Poiner & Temple 1990; Sheehan 1992; Murphy 1995; Castleman et al. 1995). This study has aimed to provide vital evidence of and explanations for the pattern of women's participation in research, specifically within the post-1987 universities and in all disciplines within those universities.
The universities chosen for the study (Charles Sturt University (CSU), University of Technology, Sydney (UTS) and University of Western Sydney (UWS)) reflect the diverse nature of the newer university sector. These three institutions were selected on the basis of their employment profiles with respect to women academics, the difference in their governance, management and organisational structures, and their urban/regional interface. The empirical research for this project was undertaken in 1994-5.
The project began with several objectives:
To explore these issues, both quantitative and qualitative research tools were employed to collect and analyse the following categories of data.
The National Competitive Grant Index (NCG) was examined and information collected from funding agencies on this Index across a range of disciplines and universities regarding the gender breakdown of applications and funded projects. This was done in order to evaluate the relative performance of women researchers during the past five years and to investigate whether any significant changes by discipline/funding agency have occurred.
Data on research grant applications from the target universities were also requested from the various funding agencies to obtain an overview of the statistical distribution of male and female applicants in the different faculties and their success rates.
Recruitment and promotion policies, Research Management Plans and Reports, University Mission Statements and Objectives, Annual Reports, Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) and Staff Development reports from all universities involved in the study were collected for analysis regarding current research development strategies.
Qualitative research was considered a most appropriate method to give a voice to women academics and as a way of limiting pre-existing ideas (Ragin 1994: 75). A total of 120 in-depth interviews with women academics were conducted to gain information about their personal and professional experiences of academia, their perception of and involvement in teaching and research, their views of their institutions, of mentoring and network relationships, and the perception of their various roles.
The meanings people hold for their everyday activities were considered vital in the understanding of women's participation in research. The data collected from the interviews has been emphasised in this report as a means of exploring what women academics viewed as the real outcomes of their research and to offer a valuable resource for further studies. The research team recognises that this approach has limitations, particularly with regard to the personal interaction between interviewer and interviewee needed for the success of the interview and accuracy of data collected by such a method. A necessary component of the research, therefore, has been the supplementation this data with a variety of other methods as outlined in this section.
In order to develop a sampling framework, the Human Resources Offices of the three universities were approached for the latest statistics on women academic staff. Current data (up to March 1994) on women academic staff was received and included names and levels of female staff in the different faculties, with particulars relating to employment status (i.e. contract, tenured, full-time or part-time).
A total population of 712 women academics was identified:
Based on these figures and the statistical distribution of the women academics in the different faculties and at different levels, the sample was selected on a stratified random basis according to discipline, department/school, age, academic status and length of academic career. On this basis, it was determined that interviews needed to be conducted with 40 women academics at the University of Technology, Sydney, 24 at Charles Sturt University and 63 at the University of Western Sydney.
The interviews took approximately two hours and included structured and open-ended questions. Open-ended questions addressed the respondent's subjective interpretation of their work performance and experiences within higher education as they pertain to research output and the teaching process. These included questions on levels of motivation and confidence in their careers and research, views of and attitudes towards their institutions, mentoring and network relationships, their roles as professional women, and the relationship between their work and domestic lives.
Structured questions addressed the respondent's education, employment, research activities and support from family/friends as well as institutional support.
A total of 100 interviews were transcribed. Of these 55 were analysed closely. All interview transcripts were read by the project team, both individually and in groups. From this process a variety of themes were identified which informed the final analysis.
A questionnaire was distributed to all women academics prior to the interview to collect information on:
In total 106 questionnaires were returned and were analysed using SPSSX and Filemaker Pro. (See Appendix 1: Interview Guide for Women Academics and Questionnaire for Women Academics.)
Deans, Professors and Heads of Departments
Thirty-five deans and professors were interviewed, representative of the targeted institution's broad discipline areas. Structured questions addressed issues pertaining to faculty support for research, as well as the academic performance of women within the faculty. Of these, 19 were transcribed and analysed to assess the effects of the disciplinary, faculty and institutional climate on women's research productivity and levels of success in promotion. These interviews were of particular interest as they explored the perceptions of senior academics in positions of influence. (See Appendix 1: Interview Guide for Deans/Staff Development/Research Officers etc.)
Staff Development and Equal Employment Opportunity Officers
Staff development and Equal Employment Opportunity Officers were interviewed to obtain information on staff development programs targeting all academics and in particular women academics. Structured questions addressed the range and types of programs, attendance levels, while open-ended questions addressed the role of staff development programs and policy in fostering research development during the past five years.
All these interviews were transcribed and analysed. These interviews highlighted the recognition of the need to develop specific strategies for the support of all research activity across the institutions but also highlighted the individual nature of each institution's needs. (See Appendix 1: Interview Guide for Deans/Staff Development/Research Officers etc.)
Research Officers/Pro Vice-Chancellors Research
Research Officers/Pro Vice-Chancellors Research (where applicable) were interviewed to gain information on the range and level of institutional support for researchers and, in particular, advice offered to women academics in grants applications and related research activities. In addition, they were invited to comment on their perceptions of the constraints that women experience in attracting funding, conducting research and publishing. Information was then sought on internal/external research funding which gave details of the gender breakdown over the past five years, as well as the effects of institutional climate on women's research productivity and the historical background of research with regard to the institution.
All of these interviews were transcribed and analysed. These interviews highlighted a diverse approach to research development strategies. In general these strategies supported research per se rather than research by women academics. (See Appendix 1: Interview Guide for Deans/Staff Development/ Research Officers etc.)
Background to the Project: The Unified National System (UNS) and the Post-1987 Universities
It is now nearly ten years since the binary system of tertiary education was abandoned and the former Colleges of Advanced Education (CAEs) and Institutes of Technology acquired university status. All these institutions now receive funding on the basis of student enrolments according to the 'Relative Funding Model' formula; capital funding is 'rolled in' to these operational grants and are no longer based on institutional submissions defining needs; and research funding is provided through the 'Research Quantum', determined according to performance on the Composite Index that includes 'input' and 'output' measures. The reforms of the last nine years have close links to a concern with efficiency, effectiveness and rationalisation of resources (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1993: xxvii). The key changes during this period include:
As indicated above, with the abolition of the binary system, there were also changes in the mechanisms for funding research and research infrastructure, across the whole university sector, ostensibly to achieve a more equitable distribution. This entailed a shift towards both performance-based funding and competitive allocation, regardless of the institution's antecedents. For a brief period, 1990 to 1994, the Australian Research Council Infrastructure Mechanism B scheme recognised (without by any means being able to compensate fully) the difference in the history of funding for research of pre- and post-1987 universities. Total funds available under this scheme were $81 633 700. The change in the underlying rationale for the distribution of research funds within the Unified National System has become embedded within the system by the introduction of the Research Quantum and the Research Infrastructure Block Grants in 1995.
The introduction of the Research Quantum Composite Index in 1995, based on broad measures of research performance (external research grants, research disseminations and higher degree completions as declared in the years 1992 and 1993) has seen a boost to the general research funding of post-87 universities. One of reasons for this is simply a matter of the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA) using more up-to-date data. Until the introduction of the Composite Index, general research funding was provided with recourse to 1988/1989 data. Moreover, the Research Quantum aims to measure general research performance, even though its measures are still predominantly weighted towards traditional measures, such as National Competitive Grants and the refereed journal article. For example, a major international exhibition that is curated and reviewed, and based on two years of research, is only worth 40 per cent of the weighting allotted to a refereed journal article and less than that given to a written conference proceeding. The implication of this move is the omission of much research effort listed by any given institution, especially that generated from non-traditional or newer disciplines (a significant feature of many post-1987 universities).
The other significant down-side to this scenario has been the replacement of Mechanism B with Research Infrastructure Block Grants (RIBG) in 1995. Based solely on performance in gaining National Competitive Grants, RIBG has channelled most of its funding to older established universities. The Group of Eight universities (GO8) gained over 50 per cent of RIBG funding in 1995, while collectively all post-1987 universities gained just over 33 per cent of RIBG funds in the same year. In many cases, post-1987 universities were only saved from having their infrastructure funding reduced to even lower allocations by the Department's decision to guarantee all universities 75 per cent in 1995 and 50 per cent in 1996 of what they had gained in infrastructure funding in 1994. In the case of the universities examined in this study, their Mechanism B allocations in 1994 were significantly greater than their RIBG allocation in 1995. Over the next few years that trend will accelerate.
The abolition of the binary system also resulted in a greater spread of disciplines in both the pre- and post-1987 universities. Newer disciplines now have access to funding for research and the capacity to develop or enhance a research profile in a manner not previously available to them under the pre-1987 funding arrangements (Brennan 1993). Nursing, in particular, was a newer discipline with a preponderance of women staff often lacking the research credentials and experience to contribute to the research outcomes of their institution. For many post-1987 universities where these disciplines played a more significant role in the overall profile of the institution, this necessitated a major financial investment in the development of the research credentials of its staff, thus imposing a further strain on the disbursement of internal research funding, over and above the significant funding the Commonwealth committed to this area.
The Commonwealth Staff Development Fund was established in 1990 within the context of academic staff award restructuring and the implementation of the Unified National System. Federal funds in excess of five million dollars per annum have been made available to all universities under a competitive grant scheme. The Fund was provided for the purpose of enabling individual institutions to address developmental issues related to research, teaching and learning, management, community service and affirmative action.
The Fund has had a significant impact on the post-1987 universities, including all institutions in this study. Funding for programs focusing on the development of staff research expertise (including postgraduate supervision) and the upgrading of postgraduate qualifications have played a supportive role in assisting the newer institutions to develop their research profile. Women employed in the post-1987 universities have particularly benefited, for instance, comprising overall 65 per cent of staff who had been assisted with postgraduate study.
Prior to the 1996 Federal election, the Minister for Employment, Education and Training announced that the fund would continue for another three years. At the time of writing, this is yet to be confirmed by the present Federal Government.
Background to the Project: The Institutions
All three institutions included in this study are classified as post-1987 institutions. Despite this description each has a quite different history of development, discipline profile and history of engagement in research. This historical perspective and its impact on the research activities and the capacity of their staff for engagement in research need to be considered.
Charles Sturt University (CSU) was formed in 1989 by the joining of two institutions: Mitchell College of Advanced Education in Bathurst and the Riverina-Murray Institute of Higher Education in Wagga Wagga and Albury-Wodonga.
The University has five faculties: Arts, Commerce, Education, Health Studies, and Science and Agriculture.
In 1994, the University employed 572 FTE Academic staff and 924 FTE General Staff (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995a: 10). In 1994, the university had 16 368 students [10 543 EFTSU] (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995b: 20, 48).
The University is one of the largest distance education providers in Australia. In 1993, about half of all students were enrolled in distance education courses. More than two-thirds of students were aged over 20, and almost half came to the University with some level of post-secondary education (Charles Sturt University 1994: 5).
The University in 1994 had seven centres for research reflecting its research strengths in rural and regional issues:
Charles Sturt University is now known as a federated network university. The headquarters are located at The Grange, on the Bathurst campus, where the vice-chancellor and some senior officers of the University are situated. The 1993 Annual Report states:
Unlike other multi-campus universities, Charles Sturt University's innovative organisational structure means that its five University-wide faculties are spread over the three campuses. The faculty and division heads are responsible for activities at all three campuses, but are not necessarily located at the University's headquarters.
The 'integrated but decentralised' structure avoids unnecessary replication of administrative and academic effort and increases students' access to academic opportunities and expertise at other campuses (Charles Sturt University 1994: 5).
At Charles Sturt the role of Pro-Vice Chancellor (Research) is undertaken by the Deputy Vice Chancellor who has a range of portfolios. There is also a dedicated research office and in 1995 a direct internal allocation for research funding of $1 120 000 (Charles Sturt University Quality Portfolio: Research and Community, Volume 2, 1995: 5).
University of Technology, Sydney
The University of Technology, Sydney was formed in 1988 from the NSW Institute of Technology. It amalgamated with Kuring-gai College of Advanced Education and the Institute of Technical and Adult Teacher Education in 1990 to become the present University of Technology, Sydney. It is a large urban university (Vice Chancellor's Review 1995: 1).
Its academic structure is more reflective of a unitary university with its major campus located in central Sydney and two small campuses located in the northern suburbs of Sydney at Kuring-gai and Gore Hill.
The University has nine faculties: Business; Design, Architecture and Building; Education; Engineering; Humanities and Social Sciences; Law and Legal Practice; Mathematical and Computing Sciences; Nursing; and Science.
In 1994, the University had a full-time Pro-Vice Chancellor (Research) who held other portfolios in addition to research, a dedicated Research Office and a Research Management Committee as well as other committees concerned with more specific research issues. In 1994, the University had an internal research budget of $1.2million (UTS Quality Submission 1995: 14).
In 1994 the University of Technology, Sydney employed 1 011 FTE Academic Staff and 1 140 FTE General Staff (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995a: 10) and had a total student enrolment of 20 986 [EFTSU: 15,492] (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995b: 1).
While they are not seen as the primary mechanism to support research, the University has a number of Centres and Institutes that undertake research which cross discipline boundaries and/or fulfil functions not possible in existing structure of faculties and schools (UTS Quality Submission 1995: 23). The University has ten such centres. These provide an indication of the strong focus on applied research involving new technologies:
The University of Technology, Sydney is also a partner in the Cooperative Research Centre for Cardiac Technology, Cooperative Research Centre for Aquaculture, and the Cooperative Research Centre in Distributed Systems Technology.
The University of Technology, Sydney 1995 Submission to the Committee for Quality Assurance in Higher Education argues that:
the profile of UTS ranges from areas with established traditions such as engineering and the physical and biological sciences to areas that are being newly developed in the university context, such as design, media production, leisure and tourism, human movement studies, nursing and adult education. UTS aims to facilitate and recognise the diverse and rapidly changing nature of research by acknowledging new research and development paradigms in it own internal process of support and reward as well as by seeking to influence that national agenda to be more open to these changes.
(University of Technology, Sydney 1995: 4).
The University of Western Sydney began operation on January 1, 1989. The University of Western Sydney Act 1988 created a federated network university based on two existing colleges of advanced education: Hawkesbury Agricultural College and Nepean College of Advanced Education. The University's Act was amended in 1989 to include the Macarthur Institute of Higher Education which became the third member of the University on 1 November 1989.
The federated structure of the University was intended to ensure that the University would be able to provide educational services of greatest immediate relevance to the communities within the region of greater western Sydney. In terms of its population and economy the region rivals some Australian States and it was seen as essential that the provision of university education should be decentralised in order to respond to local needs (University of Western Sydney, Nepean 1995: 1).
The University of Western Sydney is unique in the Australian higher education system. The federated structure provides significant autonomy under which each member has responsibility for the delivery and standard of its research and teaching programs. Undergraduate degrees are conferred in the individual member name. Each network member has their own faculties and administrative structures such as three Research Offices. On the surface each network member may appear to replicate the core course offerings of other members, but the intrinsic nature of those programs differs as each network member seeks to cater for its regional needs (University of Western Sydney, Nepean 1995: 1).
The University experienced considerable internal upheaval during 1995, following the attempt by the University of Western Sydney Nepean Academic Committee to separate from the federation and the consequent resignation of the Chief Executive Officer of UWS Nepean and Deputy Vice Chancellor of the University of Western Sydney, Emeritus Professor Jillian Maling. The public exploration of the structural tensions within the University resulted in the conduct of an internal review which ultimately reaffirmed the commitment to the federated structure. At its 30 November 1995 meeting, the Board of Governors of the University of Western Sydney agreed that changes were necessary 'to reshape and rejuvenate the University's federal structure'.
In 1994, the University had a total student population of 20 949 [EFTSU 16 625] (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995b: 20) and employed 1 073 FTE Academic staff and 1 226 FTE General Staff (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995a: 10).
The University of Western Sydney Headquarters is at Frogmore House, Werrington and accommodates the Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor and University Secretary as well as administrative staff. Policy implementation and information exchange with the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs is enacted with the University as a whole through this structure. Hence, data reported to and by the Department is representative of the University of Western Sydney as a whole, and does not reflect the diversity of practice achievement of each network member.
For the purpose of this report the federated structure of the University has been deconstructed, in order to adequately reflect the influences and experiences within each network member.
At the University of Western Sydney there is no one individual with overriding responsibility for research. Each network member has recently appointed its own full-time Pro Vice Chancellor (Research). In addition, each network member's research development is supported by a dedicated Research Office and Research Management Committee. At the university wide level there is a research coordinating committee which meets approximately four times a year and is charged with fostering collaborative research between the network members.
The University of Western Sydney is a partner in the Cooperative Research Centre for Waste Management and the Cooperative Research Centre for Eye Research and Technology.
University of Western Sydney, Nepean
The University of Western Sydney Nepean has two campuses - Kingswood/ Werrington and Westmead.
Nepean has seven faculties: Commerce; Education; Humanities and Social Sciences; Nursing and Health Studies; Science and Technology; and Engineering. A Faculty of Law will enrol its first students in 1996.
In 1994, the University employed 819 Academic and General Staff and had a student population of 10 105 (University of Western Sydney 1995: 8).
Nepean has four centres for research:
Apart from its strength in chemistry, these research centres reflect Nepean's academic strength in the humanities and social sciences.
University of Western Sydney, Macarthur
Macarthur has two campuses at Campbelltown and Bankstown and three faculties: Arts and Social Sciences; Business and Technology; and Health and Law.
In 1994 Macarthur employed 581 Academic and General staff and had a student population of 6 624 (University of Western Sydney 1995: 8).
Macarthur has three designated Research Centres reflecting its research strength in the social sciences:
University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury
Hawkesbury has two campuses: historic Richmond (established in 1891) and the newly developed Nirimba at Quakers Hill and four faculties: Agriculture and Horticulture; Health, Humanities and Social Ecology; Management; and Science and Technology.
In 1994 Hawkesbury employed 620 Academic and General staff and had a student population of 4 478 (University of Western Sydney 1995: 8).
Hawkesbury has eight designated research centres:
Overwhelmingly, these research centres reflect Hawkesbury's strength in rural research.
In 1994, women constituted 32.8 per cent of all academic staff in the Unified National System. Of these, 40.75 per cent were in tenured positions compared to 64.3 per cent for male academics. Moreover, women were disproportionately represented at the lecturer level and below, representing 51.6 per cent of below lecturer level appointments and 40.3 per cent at lecturer level. In contrast, women academics accounted for only 11.6 per cent of 'above senior lecturer' appointments (Department of Employment, Education and Training 1995a: 9-10). This issue of women's under-representation in higher education employment has been explored thoroughly in the National Tertiary Education Union report, Limited Access (1995: 14), which highlights 'academia's continuing resistance to the inclusion of women'.
Within the three institutions chosen for this study, fairly similar patterns of employment as in the system as a whole, were apparent in the period 1991 to 1993. The data is provided below. It is interesting to note that at all three universities there was a clustering of women academics in the lecturer and below lecturer category similar to that observed in the Unified National System figures. However, both the University of Western Sydney and the University of Technology, Sydney had higher levels of women academics at senior lecturer and above senior lecturer. On the other hand, Charles Sturt in those categories had similar levels observed in the Unified National System.
Table 1: Women as a Percentage of Academic Staff by Level in the Unified National System
Women as Percentage of Staff |
|||
| 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | |
| % | % | % | |
| Above Senior Lecturer | 9.76 | 10.80 | 10.71 |
| Senior Lecturer | 17.81 | 19.10 | 20.48 |
| Lecturer | 38.52 | 39.93 | 40.32 |
| Below Lecturer | 51.18 | 51.34 | 52.00 |
Source: Department of Employment, Education and Training, Selected Higher Education Staff Statistics, 1994
Table 2: Women as a Percentage of Academic Staff by Function (1994)
| CSU | UTS | UWS | UNS | |
| % | % | % | % | |
| Research only | 50.00 | 44.62 | 53.33 | 45.44 |
| n | 1 | 29 | 24 | 3710 |
| Teaching and research | 24.32 | 31.44 | 41.35 | 32.11 |
| n | 89 | 232 | 325 | 7760 |
| Teaching only | 37.50 | 0.00 | 51.22 | 46.26 |
| n | 51 | 0 | 21 | 1126 |
Source: Department of Employment, Education and Training, Selected Higher Education Staff Statistics, 1994
Table 3: Women as a Percentage of Academic Staff by Level by Institution
Charles Sturt University |
|||
| Women as Percentage of Staff | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 |
| % | % | % | |
| Above Senior Lecturer | 8.70 | 9.52 | 9.90 |
| Senior Lecturer | 12.37 | 9.81 | 11.81 |
| Lecturer | 26.66 | 28.29 | 29.92 |
| Below Lecturer | 51.55 | 49.66 | 51.28 |
University of Technology, Sydney |
|||
| Women as Percentage of Staff | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 |
| % | % | % | |
| Above Senior Lecturer | 16.90 | 19.15 | 17.45 |
| Senior Lecturer | 25.99 | 25.25 | 27.27 |
| Lecturer | 35.71 | 33.88 | 34.70 |
| Below Lecturer | 47.09 | 47.37 | 60.32 |
University of Western Sydney |
|||
| Women as Percentage of Staff | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 |
| % | % | % | |
| Above Senior Lecturer | 18.75 | 20.00 | 19.25 |
| Senior Lecturer | 33.33 | 33.85 | 36.18 |
| Lecturer | 46.46 | 47.36 | 46.24 |
| Below Lecturer | 60.43 | 54.25 | 52.38 |
Source: Department of Employment, Education and Training, Higher Education Staff Data Collection 1991, 1992, 1993
This data clearly shows that Charles Sturt University has the lowest percentage of women academics in the category senior lecturer and above. It is within these categories that research leadership and participation are crucial for further promotion of the individual but is also vital in the provision of role models for more inexperienced women academics.
It is also worth noting that the percentage of women at lecturer level has remained fairly constant in the three institutions, being lowest in Charles Sturt. At levels below lecturer, there is close to 50 per cent female participation at all institutions.