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Research Development and Administration
Recruitment and Promotion Policies
Interviews with Deans, Professors and Pro Vice-Chancellors
The imperative to develop Research Management Plans (RMP's) emerged via the Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission report for the 1988-1990 Triennium. Under this document universities were directed to develop rolling strategies that could accommodate emerging and established research. Moreover, for post-1987 universities, the production of such plans was inextricably linked to access to research infrastructure funds (Department of Employment, Education and Training, National Report on Australia's Higher Education Sector 1993: 271).
Research Management Plans were able to be used as an internal mechanism for establishing research priorities and the allocation of resources. Inevitably such documents were the public face universities presented to government and to other stakeholders.
Throughout the university sector such documents have been continually revised, stimulated not only by the financial and public prestige incentives of the Higher Education Quality Reviews, but also by a series of major external reviews (i.e. the Industry Commission Report Research and Development, Volume 1, 1995: 358 and the Higher Education Management Review (Hoare 1995: 62-64).
Allowing for the structural differences between the three targeted institutions, the Research Management Plans examined in this study had a high degree of commonality. All articulated a philosophy of supporting the research effort and the development of a research ethos along with an acknowledgment of the key role of research in university life. All identified the need to develop support strategies to foster research at all levels within the institution. For instance, for the newer researcher, the University of Technology, Sydney through its Centre for Teaching and Learning, provided staff development programs in research skills and writing grant proposals. Charles Sturt University provided small 'seeding' grants for newer researchers, as did all the network members of the University of Western Sydney.
However, Charles Sturt University alone promulgated a policy directed at fostering research by women academics with a strategy to utilise the Women's Network to mentor research by women academics and had introduced a specific funded scheme targeting women researchers.
On the whole, the Research Management Plans of all the institutions studied are an aggregation of the issues that impact on research activities. They included such things as:
While objectives were clearly articulated, and in some instances given specific numerical targets, there was no clear delineation of the path between the two. Nor did any of these plans address the factors which might motivate and support the individual researcher.
Finally, none of the documents integrated equity issues into its research support strategies, although it is apparent that research outcomes were reported in those terms. Moreover there is little consistency in the use of planning and management terminology. No one document defined the meaning of such terms as goals, objectives, strategies, etc., nor was there any clear articulation between these management and planning processes.
A summary and brief analysis of each Research Management Plan follows.
The Charles Sturt Research Management Plan opens with an historical perspective on the processes leading up to the development of this current Research Management Plan (1994-1996). The document highlights key objectives identified in the early years of the institution operating as a university. These objectives clearly state the desire to foster the research culture and focus the efforts and finances of the institution to achieve this end.
The Research Management Plan also spells out the articulation with other Charles Sturt University documentation, including the Triennial Plan for development, the University Mission Statement, and the academic structure of the institution.
The University identifies ten key research goals (see Table 10), each of which is supported by a series of objectives and strategies. There is considerable crossover between strategies and the objectives and goals they seek to support. However, the strategies included are specific (e.g. achieve minimum annual growth of university research fund of 10 per cent; support new initiatives; publish a directory of staff research). The document also includes some evaluative statements but does not clearly articulate its monitoring processes or the performance indicators attached to each strategy.
The research objectives and associated strategies are embedded in a narrative which encompasses the historical rationale for development, past and present responses, and outcomes such as they may be and the stakeholders involved. As such, the clarity of analysis is somewhat muted. In addition, whilst some strategies are spelt out under the narrative describing attainment of objectives, a number are presented as a grouping at the conclusion of each division of the document.
Table 10: Research Goals of Charles Sturt University for the Triennium 1994-1996
In order to achieve the research goals delineated in Table 10, Charles Sturt University has identified six major areas of focus. Each of these areas has been subdivided into key issues, each of which (in the main) has associated objectives and an attached array of strategies. These areas, objectives, and strategies are summarised in Appendix 2.
Women Researchers
Of the research strategies delineated, a number specifically foster research by female academics (i.e. 'seed' grants for women researchers develop and utilise a women's network to raise awareness of research and development). While it is not apparent in the Research Management Plan, the University has initiated a grant scheme whereby female academics can achieve time release to secure their higher degrees through research.
University of Technology, Sydney
The Research Management Plan of 1993-1995 introduces itself through the historical development of the University and the steps in development of the current Plan and indeed an historical perspective on the development of research at the University. This section clearly delineates the University's position as a post-1987 university which not only supports research in non-traditional areas, but has a strong reliance and dedication to applied research. There is also a clear description of the institutional philosophy on research, specifically the essential role and value of research, the recognition of different research paradigms and research outcomes and the key role of relevant research and institution responsibility. Interestingly, specific attention is paid to defining consultancy and how this can be distinguished from contract research.
The document identified six key research objectives for the University of Technology, Sydney (see Table 11) and five strategic goals. For each of the identified issues, a series of strategies has been proposed and implemented (see Appendix 2).
Table 11: University of Technology, Sydney Research Objectives
The attainment of these objectives is not overtly stated in the document. The plan does outline a designated set of strategic goals, which are correlated with keys issues for attainment and associated strategies (see Appendix 2). However, a number of these 'strategies' are nebulous and are really objectives. For instance, develop staff; develop long term academic vision; achieve greater integration of strategic academic, research management planning processes and resource allocation. Some, however, are quite specific; for example, to promote research images through Anchor, Newsmaker press releases, faculties newsletters.
Finally, the area of monitoring the outcomes and the attainment of these goals and strategies is not adequately addressed.
There are no specific strategies which support women researchers in this Research Management Plan, but strategies which support non-traditional areas, such as nursing, by default support women researchers. The Office of Research and the Centre for Learning and Teaching offer programs for development of research skills and developing research proposals; these support newer researchers-male and female. It is strongly argued that women benefit the most from these schemes. In 1992, of the 54 staff who attended a research skills course, 65 per cent were women. In addition, the internal research grant scheme targets newer researchers; and so it is believed to support women researchers; no data were available on the relative success of female academics in this scheme.
Finally, time release for PhD completion has been implemented since 1993. Again, no data was available to determine the gender distribution that benefited from this strategy.
The Research Management Plan of the University of Western Sydney (1993-1995) was under review during the life of this study. The Plan has a heavy emphasis on the administrative and committee structure which supports research. The document delegates primary responsibilities to the network member to develop specific research strategies but does include one section on research objectives and performance measures. These are presented below.
This document does not articulate strategies which will achieve these stated objectives. However, it does analyse the resources necessary to support research, but again a number of these are devolved to the individual network member. These identified resources are deemed to be (1) research funding, and (2) establishment of research priorities.
Also included in the document, but not allied to any specific set of objectives, are the initiatives which have been undertaken. These are:
Table 12: University of Western Sydney Research Objectives and Performance Measures
All in all, the document does not present a coherent approach to developing and supporting research at the University of Western Sydney. There is a severe lack of detail on implementation and monitoring processes. This effect may be largely due to the federated structure of the University and so it would be expected that each network member would have developed a specific Research Management Plan which broadly encompasses the principles of the University Plan but spells out specific detailed strategies and performance indicators.
University of Western Sydney Network Members
The Research Management Plans of the three network members are intended to articulate with the broad structural framework of the University of Western Sydney Plan. As such, each reiterates the research objectives but in the context of member function; however, there is variation in the use of and delineation of research targets and each network member has defined its own unique, and not always common, research strategies.
Table 13 examines the research objectives of the three network members. The research strategies and targets which are aligned with these objectives are in Appendix 2.
Table 13: University of Western Sydney Research Objectives
Macarthur |
Hawkesbury |
Nepean |
| To develop an institutional ethos which recognises the fundamental importance of research as a central activity empowering teaching/learning, scholarship, and community interactions. | To establish a supportive climate for the development of a research ethos. | To undertake applied and basic research for cultural, economic, scientific and technological purposes. |
| To encourage the development of an integrated and co-ordinated approach to research development within UWS Macarthur which reflects the aspirations of the various faculties/departments/ groups, centres/ individuals through individual faculty research strategic plans and UWS Macarthur’s overall Research Strategic Plan. | To accord a high priority to the development of higher degree studies. | To undertake research of potential value to Australian society and the Australian economy. |
| To actively encourage and assist individual academic staff members to develop their research potential and to provide mechanisms for formally recognising and rewarding achievement in research and scholarly activity. | To identify potential areas of research activity with established centres and encourage the development of new ones. | To assemble, analyse, and disseminate new knowledge across a wide range of disciplines, while promoting the preservation of knowledge through sound scholarship. |
| To provide a ‘client-oriented’ research management structure which will support and facilitate research activity across UWS Macarthur, whether by academic staff or postgraduate students. | To identify potential joint ventures and collaborative research partners from commercial, professional and other educational institutions. | To provide research training at both postgraduate and postdoctoral levels. |
| To encourage the development of focussed research centres and research groups by identifying and building upon UWS Macarthur’s existing and emerging research strengths. | To facilitate research development by establishment of protocols consistent with accepted scientific practice. | To develop a sound research infrastructure to meet the needs of research across a selected range of disciplines. |
| To encourage the development of collaborative research across the UWS Federated Network, with other academic institutions, Government agencies, community groups, commerce, and industry. | To ensure that, within the academic staffing policy framework, positive incentives exist for staff to undertake research. | To facilitate increased research collaboration with industry, Government departments and instrumentalities, commerce, the professions, and community organisations. |
| To obtain additional funding, supplementary to that provided from UWS Macarthur’s operating grant and research quantum, to support research activities from external sources, including ARC funds, government agencies and other research funding agencies, industry and commerce. | To develop arrangements which lead to the transfer and commercial exploitation of knowledge gained from research and to ensure that any such developments protect UWS Nepean’s intellectual property. | |
| To seek to improve the quality and quantity of research infrastructure support within UWS Macarthur to a level that would normally be expected within a well established university including space, research library collections, research support staff, specialist equipment, and access to facilities. | To observe and promote high ethical standards in all its research activities. |
| To seek to improve UWS Macarthur’s research performance within the context of the national competitive research index and to capture all available data on research activity within UWS Macarthur and report regularly upon research performance within UWS Macarthur. | To develop the full potential of its staff for excellence in research. | |
| To encourage the development of UWS Macarthur’s Research Higher Degree program through the provision of more scholarships, improved research supervision, and better infrastructure support. This will involve the provision of staff development activities and the development of a ‘code of practice’ relating to research higher degree activities. | To undertake and promote research and scholarship that contributes to the intellectual life of Western Sydney. |
University of Western Sydney Network Members Summary
In total, the research directions of the Network Members of the University of Western Sydney display commonality related to the general thrust towards developing a research culture at the University. However, no gender specific issues are addressed, nor are strategies articulated to foster research in the non-traditional areas of professional activity characteristic of this institution.
Research Development and Administration
A total of five research officers were interviewed, one at Charles Sturt University, one at the University of Technology, Sydney and one for each network member of the University of Western Sydney. In all instances, these research offices had been established after the attainment of university status. These beginnings were small with original appointments of one research officer and (minimal) administrative support. These offices had seen considerable growth both in staff and in the diversity and amount of work they now handled.
The role of a research office is broad, encompassing:
These responsibilities are directed at meeting a hierarchy of needs: from the extra-mural requirements of the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs reporting (crucial to the funding flow to the institution); to the institutional needs for structured disbursement of funds and information alongside internal data collection (essential for the effective development of the institutional support structures for research); and finally through to the individual researchers need for financial and psychological support in the research process (crucial for the actual research performance of the institution).
The interviews with all Research Officers clearly acknowledged this diversity of responsibilities but also articulated an inherent conflict in resource allocations and philosophies needed to meet the demands of different groups in particular external reporting requirements and internal support. Some but not all institutions, did not believe they had the necessary infrastructure to meet these competing needs.
Within institutions Research Officers presented a common litany of factors which reduced the individuals (and hence the institutions) level of involvement in research.
This lack of time for research was not necessarily a burden imposed by the institution. It was believed that some individuals when given the chance to alter their subject load or even change the way in which their subjects were taught (i.e. reduce face-to-face contact) were reluctant to do so. This sentiment was echoed in Deans' interviews.
The availability of time for research was influenced by number of subjects; course co-ordination responsibilities; type of teaching; spread of teaching over the year and mode of delivery. This latter factor was important for individuals in institutions involved in distance education.
Some institutions had introduced strategies to reduce this problem. The majority of these were faculty-based and will be discussed later; all, however, had introduced time-release schemes for completion of research higher degrees, and one had introduced a time release scheme for completion by research projects leading to publication.
All institutions, to differing degrees, had set aside internal funds to support research. These internal funds were either top-sliced as a research budget and dispersed through a pan-institution committee or were faculty-based and distributed within the Faculties according to their own internal criteria. The research officers said they had a key role in:
i) directing researchers to appropriate external funding agencies; and
ii) generating more activity and support in the Faculties.
One institution had adopted a strategic focus whereby over half the internal research funds went to approved research centres, the underlying rationale being that it is better to have a reasonable level of funding in potentially valuable pockets than to spread the funds too thinly for effective usage. It is also worth noting that the same institution allows these centres to enrol Postgraduate Research students.
One research officer highlighted the lack of confidence women had in their own careers and career trajectory. This same research officer also noted that women tended to respond to unsuccessful research grant applications by seeking to find out how to improve their proposals while male academics tended to blame the funding scheme and the research system per se for their lack of success.
It was felt that women academics:
i) were often willing to shoulder higher teaching loads and so reduced their capacity for involvement in research; and
ii) did not belong to the right networks (i.e. the 'golf club') and so were not 'known' or did not receive vital 'informal' information. In other words, women academics suffered from lack of opportunity.
One research officer believed that the system allowed mediocre men to succeed but only the best and most persistent women made it.
Only one institution had acknowledged the gender politics of research and had initiated strategies to specifically support women in research. These strategies were:
a) a women's network; and
b) a small grants scheme/time release for women academics.
The Equal Employment Opportunity office of this institution also conducted its own research project on women's performance in research.
Two research officers indicated that gender issues were not relevant in research. One went on to argue that the discipline base of women members of staff was more pertinent to their engagement in research.
On the issue of gender in research, some research offices were able to produce data relating to their institutional performance (i.e. success rates per applications rate per gender). One office in particular held extensive data on gender, as well as collecting information regarding academic discipline. Not much of this data, however, was published, though both Charles Sturt and University of Western Sydney Nepean published gender data in their 1995 Quality submissions.
One Research Officer noted that at the Commonwealth level, all research offices were collecting data on publications and research grants by Field of Research and source of funding, but that no national data was being collected on gender-this they considered a significant oversight.
One research officer highlighted the need for newer institutions to seek out and support potential researchers (i.e. not waiting for researchers to ring the Research Office but alerting individuals to funding opportunities and offering career advice regarding a potential program of activities); in short, a strategic approach to grant applications. One research officer suggested the need to sometimes advise people not to submit an external application, particularly if the researchers did not have the time to produce a highly competitive proposal. There was also a concern that grant seeking could dominate the process of developing the actual research profile; it was often important to suggest to individual academics that they might like consider devoting most of their energies in a semester or a year to a publications program, consolidating previous research work, as opposed to seeking to submit numerous applications for a range of funding agencies.
In general, Staff Development Offices operated either under the umbrella of, or in association with, the Human Resources Division, and as such their services were primarily focused on the development of essential competencies in general staff. The majority of Offices summarised their activities as:
An array of programs were offered under these descriptors. For academics these offerings included programs which focus on development of research skills:
Some offices saw their programs as developed around the needs of particular faculties and administrative divisions. On the whole, the role of the staff development offices appeared to be heavily oriented towards skills acquisition. In some institutions the staff development office was responsible for managing academic staff study leave and some schemes directed at attainment of higher degrees.
Interaction with either Equal Employment Opportunity offices or research offices, in particular, was minimal and no cohesive set of strategies appeared to be in place which harnessed the energies and directions of these three support centres.
Perceived Problems for Women Academics
Effective establishment of networks: Some offices had attempted to establish mentoring schemes but they had not been particularly successful due to lack of universal understanding of the objectives of the scheme and the need for a more sophisticated training program for mentors. In one institution it was perceived that little interest had been shown by academic staff in the concept of mentoring. In another, a mentoring scheme entitled, Academic Review, and implemented as part of the Award Restructuring Agreement, had confused the general perception of the function of the mentoring process. It was not at all clear whether it had been successful. Generally, what was believed to be needed was an effective training program for mentors and clear guidelines as to the nature of the relationship between mentor and mentored. Finally, one institution believed a facilitator was needed to keep such a mentoring group going.
The major problems with establishing an effective mentoring scheme for women academics seemed to be the:
Gender Structure of the Institution
In one institution, in particular, there was a perception that the research culture of the institution was very male dominated. Women, in significant numbers, were located in specific disciplines, such as Nursing. There was poor representation at research-focused workshops, although keenly expressed need for such support. It was still felt there was underlying resentment of the institutional push to develop research.
It was argued that because of the history of the institutions, individuals could be quite senior in the academic hierarchy and not necessarily possess the research credentials for the position. Moreover, these individuals carried administrative loads which prevented them effectively pursuing an active research agenda. Therefore, staff development strategies needed to encompass both ends of the academic spectrum.
It was also argued that the competition within the academic world was now so tough that newer appointees often have much better research credentials than those higher up the academic ladder and that this was bound to create morale problems for both cohorts, either through feelings of inability to compete or lack of promotion opportunities.
The issues of bringing the objectives of the institution and the objectives of the individual into accord were seen to be a key function of the Staff Development Officer. It was also argued that the Staff Development Office needed to examine some specific problems which affected academic women; that is, effective networking, overcoming family constraints, and how not to get involved with time-wasting committees!
Analysis of the staff development strategies related to research and, in particular, women's engagement in research was problematic. Staff development strategies by necessity target all staff, general and academic, and as such the investment of time and money is spread thinly. In the three institutions studied, the majority of staff development activities were aimed at increasing the skills and competencies of general staff. For academic staff, activities were directed at developing effective teaching skills, developing skills in research planning and management and developing skills for climbing the promotions ladder! By necessity then, while some support was provided for engaging in the research process, it formed but a small part of staff development practice.
Of the three institutions studied, Charles Sturt alone had a clearly defined objective to 'increase the proportion of academic women undertaking research at CSU' and this was articulated through their Affirmative Action Plan. In all three institutions, the Affirmative Action Plans clearly focused on securing tenure and promotion for all disadvantaged groups. Similar comments can be made with respect to these plans as have been made for staff development.
Not one of the institutions had distinctly articulated staff development policies which related to research, although all institutions had clearly engaged in such activities. Despite this lack of unique policy statements, the specific objectives and strategies which would underlie such policies were encompassed by the broad scope of Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmation Action policies and were detailed in either the Affirmative Action or Equal Opportunity reports of the institution.
Staff development objectives were articulated through the Equal Opportunity Management Plan. These objectives were:
The array of staff development activities devised to attain these objectives were detailed in the annual reports to the Director of Equal Opportunity in Public Employment and in the Charles Sturt University Annual Report. On-campus activities have largely focused on development of management and leadership skills. Of a total of 2751 participants, 61 per cent were female. The range of off-campus staff development activities were not reported but interestingly shows a lower participation by women at 33 per cent.
Two programs existed to provide academic and general staff with time to complete a course or professional development activity. These did not support work for a higher degree. Study time for general staff recorded 64 per cent female participants, while the Special Studies program for academic staff recorded 20 per cent successful female applicants (the gender distribution of applicants being 27 per cent female). These rates were reflective of the gender distribution of staff at Charles Sturt University in 1993.
| Male | Female | |
| % | % | |
| General Staff | 47 | 53 |
| Academic staff | 75 | 25 |
In 1991, with Department of Employment, Education and Training funding, the University introduced a time release program to assist academic staff to upgrade their qualifications, in particular their research credentials. Initially, it was directed at female staff but was subsequently open to all staff. For 1993, 76 per cent of funding was awarded to female staff. In total, over three years of operation, 43 (or 35 per cent) of female academic staff had received a time release grant. The available data did not permit analysis of the success rate of applications or of the total numbers of female staff who would be eligible for such support. Having said that, 8 of the 43 participants had, by the end of 1992, completed their higher degree studies.
In 1993 the Equal Employment Opportunity unit conducted a study to determine the amount of time female academic staff spent on their research. The majority were found to spend less than 10 per cent of their time thus engaged. In addition, they identified 3 main barriers to research:
As a result of this study, the Equal Employment Opportunity unit, with funding from the Department of Employment, Education and Training, introduced a program to foster the development of research amongst women staff. Specific strategies included:
The University's Affirmative Action reports indicate an ongoing, often indirect support for women's' involvement in research. In addition to the above-mentioned objective to increase the proportion of women undertaking research, there were strategies to promote the career advancement of academic women which implicitly support research, and others directed at provision of child care which indirectly affected involvement in research. The level of financial support provided was not known.
University of Technology, Sydney
Strategies aimed at directly fostering research activities by women academics were not specifically addressed in either the Equal Employment Opportunity or the Affirmative Action documents of the University. However, some objectives and associated strategies clearly supported increasing the capacity of women academics to participate in research. Specifically, an increase in the provision of childcare was seen to enhance women's overall participation in academic life. However, it should be noted that such places were still very low, with only 70 places in the city campus and 25 at St Leonards to service a total staff population of 2 151 (in 1994) and a student population of 20 986. Clearly provision of adequate child care support was an ongoing problem affecting women's participation in the higher education sector as staff or students.
The Centre for Learning and Teaching (CLT), in its role of providing a support base for academic staff development, had implemented a 6-year project (commenced 1991) to develop research potential amongst all staff. This program consisted of a course in development of research skills, time release for higher degree completions, workshops for research supervisors, and research retreats. The various components of this project attracted significant involvement by women academics; that is, research skills development, 69 per cent; and research supervision workshop, 42 per cent. No figures were available for time release for higher degree completions.
Interestingly, the relatively high level of involvement in what could be called 'research training programs' by female staff (69 per cent and 42 per cent, respectively), contrasted with their total representation in academic staff (32 per cent in 1993).
An analysis of women academic staff undertaking the Professional Experience Program (PEP) indicated 32 per cent participation, the same as women's representation in the academic workforce. It should be noted, however, that PEP covers not only research activities, but also coaching, industrial work, or a combination of these.
The objectives and strategies outlined in both sets of documentation contained a heavy emphasis on career security and improving prospects for promotion for both general and academic staff. Again it was implicit, but not explicit, that the fostering of research was an important ingredient in successful attainment of these objectives.
The University documentation reflected the member-focused structure of the institution, in that each network member had adopted a series of staff development strategies with some, but not complete, overlap. In terms of fostering and developing the research involvement of women staff, the University of Western Sydney Macarthur, under its Equal Employment Opportunity objective directed at increasing the number of women in senior positions, indicated a commitment to 'monitor' staff training and development with respect to conference attendance and study leave. In 1993 it conducted a research skills program with a strong focus on research methodology. A total of 188 participants were recorded over 26 separate offerings. Of these, 78 per cent were female, and 44 per cent came from the Faculty of Health, 57 per cent at lecturer B level.
At UWS Nepean, staff development strategies aimed at providing a fair and equitable working environment, delineate career development opportunities for male and female staff aimed at supporting research. These include academic staff time release scholarships for completion of postgraduate research degrees, conference scholarships, and the academic study leave program.
UWS Hawkesbury does not directly refer to research support schemes as part of its strategies; it does, however, run similar programs to the other network members. In addition, it indicates a commitment to 39 child care places for 1993 and re-establishment of a vacation child care program. It is worth noting the total population of staff at Hawkesbury in 1993 was 589, with 283 females, predominantly general staff (212).
Neither Nepean or Macarthur make any reference to childcare facilities, although both network members provide such a service.
While the research management plans of all institutions had defined strategies to support research, only one institution, Charles Sturt, had developed and implemented a strategy targeting women academics. While all institutions monitor success rates in support schemes on a gender basis, the need to develop specific strategies was largely ignored.
Recruitment and Promotion Policies
The recruitment policies of all these institutions display commitment to Equal Employment Opportunity principles. Each institution has developed a series of protocols ensuring open advertisement, clear criteria statements of necessary qualifications and experiences, and consistency in interview and final selection statements. All institutions have, however, retained the right to make specific appointments by invitation. While such a policy right encompasses short term casual appointments of six months or less duration, and variations in full/part time status, they also cover appointment of professorial fellows and virtually any appointment at any level (e.g. University of Technology, Sydney Council reserves the right to make an appointment by invitation etc).
From a positive perspective this codum to employment practice gives institutions (or their management) the power to target and recruit particularly high calibre individuals. On the negative side, it permits and escalates the possible continuance of an 'old boys' network, where individuals who are well known to the 'management' group are given opportunities which are not necessarily open to all. This negative aspect is particularly relevant for women academics, who may not be particularly well known, but equally as competent.
In a similar vein, opportunities for academic management, such as Dean or Head of School, are frequently based on 'reputation', usually of international or national standing. The question needs to be asked what relevance this may ultimately have to the quality of leadership, strategic planning and personnel skills needed in the management of an academic unit.
Amongst the three institutions examined in this study, promotion polices quite clearly stated relevant criteria for promotion and the process to be used in selection of individuals for promotion. Broadly speaking, these areas encompassed qualifications; teaching; research/scholarship; and contribution to governance. The level of performance in each area was expected to differ at various levels, with an increasing emphasis on research performance and academic leadership at higher levels of appointment. This structure was observed at all three institutions. At one, a numerical weighting was attached to each category with limited flexibility to accommodate the applicant's perception of their own contribution.
It was evident that all three institutions had invested considerable effort into developing clear applicant guidelines for promotion, each performance category having an array of descriptors which applicants could use to argue their case. Research and scholarship descriptors also addressed non-traditional fields of endeavour, but none ventured into non-traditional research outcomes. Nevertheless, documentation made it apparent that the individual was free to argue and develop their own perspective. Despite the detailed structure and clarity of these documents, however, many staff, at all levels within the target institutions, held on to some mythology regarding implementation of these policies and procedures. In particular, as will be discussed later, many of the women academics interviewed perceived research performance as the primary criterion for promotion, while academics in management positions seemed to echo these sentiments.
Interviews with Deans, Professors and Pro Vice-Chancellors
Despite overt differences in the nature of the institutions studied, some commonality of themes emerged from these interviews relating to the positive aspects as well as the problems and strategies of research development. In the interests of confidentiality, specific institutions and faculties have not been identified.
Though the majority of academic managers at the three institutions believed the establishment of a research culture and achievement of research goals was a difficult job, all identified positive aspects of their institution. Some, including women academics, indicated that they saw their institution as a place of opportunity. These identified positive aspects included:
Problems relating to the establishment and development of research were:
The strategies developed within the three institutions to foster research have many similarities, though some were distinct to individual institutions; for instance, the Charles Sturt University policy of focusing the majority of its research effort and expenditure in specific areas of excellence. This was evident in: