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| Towards Internationalising Visual Arts Curricula |
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97/5 Gregory Leong |
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Tasmanian School of Art at
Launceston |
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| Evaluations and
Investigations Program Higher Education Division Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs |
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ã Commonwealth of Australia 1997
ISBN 0 642 23642 9
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Australian Government Publishing Service. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the manager, Commonwealth Information Services, Australian Government Publishing Service, GPO Box 84, Canberra ACT 2601.
This report is funded under the Evaluations and Investigations Program of the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs.
The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs.
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Contents [Top] |
1. Overseas Students from Asian Countries Studying at Australian Art Schools
2. Australian Art Schools and Art Theory/History Curricula
3. Australian Art Schools and Drawing and Studio Curricula
6. Identified Resources for the Internationalisation of Art School Curricula
Appendices
Due to size restrictions the appendices were not included in this report. If you wish to obtain a copy of the appendices, they are available by request from the department on disk. To obtain copies of these appendices please contact Catherine Moore on (06) 240 9285.
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Executive Summary [Next Chapter] [Contents] |
This study, undertaken by the Tasmanian School of Art at Launceston, University of Tasmania, for the Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA) is part of the Department’s Evaluations and Investigations Program. It addresses issues of internationalisation in university curricula for the visual arts.
The data collected on curricula in Australian university art schools offer evidence that this sector of university education has been slow to respond to the need for art schools to diversify their approach to curriculum development and pedagogical practices.
The recommendations derived from the analysis of the data can be used by universities as a starting point for developing a more internationalised Art Theory/History curriculum and delivery of a visual arts program to Asian students from overseas.
The following is a summary of the principal findings in the project as laid out in the seven chapters of this report.
Introduction
A study commisssioned by DEETYA for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Curriculum Development for Internationalisation (March 1995), revealed that there were many varied initiatives in the area of curriculum development throughout the 38 universities in Australia. Universities were asked to describe up to five examples of internationalised curriculum development. Out of the 175 detailed, only two were from the visual and performing arts. This low number suggested that art schools have been backward in addressing issues of internationalisation, in comparison with other disciplines.
As in other disciplines, however, there has been an increase in the enrolment of international students for undergraduate art programs. Recent research1 has shown that Asian students made up a majority of overseas students undertaking university visual art and design education in Australia.
Several art schools have recognised the growing market for Australian art education from Asian countries and accordingly have undertaken marketing initiatives to recruit overseas students from Asian countries. Other art schools have recognised that equally important was the development of curriculum and pedagogical approaches that took into account the multicultural and intercultural aspects of art school education.
The research by the Tasmanian School of Art at Launceston focuses on an Asian context. It examines how curricula have taken Asian content into account and how current pedagogical practices have been adjusted to accommodate Asian students. A parallel line of investigation concerns the perceived needs of Australian students for increased Asian curriculum content and the broadening effects of the understanding of and exposure to neighbouring cultures on learning.
Chapter 1: Overseas Students from Asian Countries Studying at Australian Art Schools
Over four per cent (333) of students in undergraduate visual art programs are overseas students from Asian countries, including Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Malaysia, China, Taiwan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Nepal, Indonesia and Vietnam.
In 1995, there were no Asian students studying art in the Northern Territory, and the percentage is low in South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory (both under 2%). The highest concentration is, in order, in Victoria (6.24%), New South Wales (4.76%) and Queensland (3.96%). Forty-one (5.13%) Asian students out of a total of 800 are in a postgraduate program. The majority (16.42%) of students from Asia were majoring in Painting in 1995.
Australia as a destination for art training is considered only as a low third choice by Asian students, coming after the United States and France. However, more than half the respondents in the survey of Asian Drawing and Art Theory/History students say they would like to pursue further studies here.
Reasons for coming to Australia to study include Australian culture, the opportunity to learn English, non-availability of art training in the students’ countries, and that it was less expensive to study here. Several responses alluded to the multicultural aspects of Australian culture.
Chapter 2: Australian Art Schools and Art Theory/History Curricula
Twenty-eight out of 29 Australian art schools taking part in the study included Art Theory/History as a core subject at some if not all stages of their 1995 undergraduate degree program. While 40 per cent of the respondents have introduced non-Western (including Asian) content into their Art Theory/History curricula, the actual amount represents a very small percentage of all Art Theory/History units on offer, with at least 83.92 per cent of Art Theory curricula being represented by Western Art Theory. Only five (1.04%) out of a total of 479 semester-length units deal specifically with Asian art. Aboriginal art fared scarcely better with nine (1.88%) units.
While many schools recognise the benefits of internationalising their curricula, they are reticent to do so, citing their reasons as being low numbers of Asian students and lack of appropriate staff and other resources.
However, student support for the internationalisation of Art Theory curricula is undeniable. Many of these students perceived internationalised content primarily as an enhancement to arts practice that gives a broader view of art, and they were also aware of the cultural benefits to be gained. The inclusion of Asian Art Theory in art schools presents possibilities for also enhancing Studio programs. Students attending schools which have partially internationalised their Art Theory/History curricula appear to have a more positive attitude towards and interest in non-Western art. Australian students in particular see a growing need for an awareness and understanding of other cultures, particularly those in close proximity to Australia (i.e. Asian cultures).
Over one third of all students surveyed nominated the following topics for inclusion in Art Theory programs: Contemporary Asian Art Theory, in its historical context; Japanese art; Chinese art; Political Art from Asia; the political issues that influence Asian art and Intercultural influences between Western and Asian art.
Awareness of Australia’s proximity to Asia is an issue both in lecturers’ and students’ comments, and this could be also considered when internationalising curricula. The notion of proximity may be broadened beyond the geographical to include the closeness of trade and political relations.
Recommendation 1:
That visiting artist programs incorporating both Asian artists and Australian artists who have participated in projects and programs in Asia become an integral part of curriculum development for schools starting to internationalise their program.
Recommendation 2:
That schools internationalising their curricula should consider using as a starting point countries that are closest to Australia, whether through trade or economic links, politically, or geographical proximity. These Asian countries may be the first to be introduced into the program.
Recommendation 3:
That schools should internationalise their curricula as there are benefits to be gained through this for Australian society, including the promotion of intercultural awareness and understanding.
Recommendation 4:
That schools which internationalise their Art Theory/History curricula should consider using the resources they have amassed for this as a starting point for also internationalising studio content.
Recommendation 5:
That Asian Art Theory/History be included in Australian art school curricula in order to give a broader view of art, enhance art practice and increase cultural enrichment.
Recommendation 6:
That contemporary Asian art be included in Art Theory/History curricula in Australian art schools, incorporating the following:
- Japanese art;
- Chinese art;
- the historical and social contexts of Asian art;
- political Asian art and political issues that influence Asian art; and
- topics concerning East/West intercultural influences in art.
Chapter 3: Australian Art Schools and Drawing and Studio Curricula
Two-thirds of Australian art schools have not included Asian material in their Drawing programs and only 8 per cent indicated in the schools’ survey that they would modify their curricula.
The data suggest that there is a very large group of Australian art students with low awareness of non-Eurocentric contemporary trends in art but these students indicated that they would welcome the inclusion of Asian and non-Western material in their Drawing curricula.
A number of potential approaches to the development of internationalised curricula are revealed by the survey, and it is clear that the viability of any curriculum change is dependent on the availability of appropriate resources.
In spite of the varied responses between art schools, a clear trend towards the inclusion of non-Western and Asian material in curricula material can be discerned. This is supported by many students who would like to see an expansion of this development.
The question of defining an Asian identity arises often, and this would be a useful starting point to the development of any curriculum initiatives which address Asia.
Recommendation 7:
That cultural awareness training be made available to teaching staff to develop sensitivity to the cultural differences of students from diverse backgrounds.
Recommendation 8:
That schools initiate and continually develop visual and other resources that include Asian and non-Western material.
Recommendation 9:
That consideration of rationales for curriculum development should include the issues of cultural sensitivity, conservation of cultural diversity, and intercultural understanding.
Recommendation 10:
That the question of defining an Asian identity be used as a starting point to curriculum development which addresses Asia.
Recommendation 11:
That schools recognise the benefits which accrue from intercultural communication and develop appropriate material for their inclusion in their Drawing programs.
Recommendation 12:
That where schools already include such material, they should adopt a policy of regular revision of that material.
Recommendation 13:
That in pursuing the above recommendation care should be taken not to overload existing programs with new material.
Chapter 4: Pedagogical Issues
Where modifications have been made in the pedagogical approach of an art school, the quality of responses from students to these changes suggest that the benefits can be substantial.
The responses are diverse and specific, and many demonstrate considerable thought, suggesting that knowledge and understanding of intercultural issues exists as specific and isolated pockets of expertise across universities.
These responses would be a useful starting point to the development of desirable learning outcomes to inform and underpin pedagogical and curriculum development initiatives.
Four different types of approaches to accommodating the special needs of Asian students have been identified: the supplementary approach (involving extra tuition time); the alternative approach (special consideration offered in the form of different material where cultural sensitivities need to be accommodated); the comparative approach (involving development of resource materials to allow the exploration of difference, exchange of ideas), and the interpretive approach (student-directed orientation encouraged in teaching programs).
The majority of Asian students rate their experience of study in Australia highly. The reasons for good experiences appear to be mainly freedom of communication and expression. On the negative side, a fairly high number of students (21.05%) perceive support mechanisms as lacking.
The majority of Australian students surveyed do not report a large influence of Asia on their Drawing practice. However, where influence is commented upon, the character of this influence is quite diverse. Four clear groups of issues emerge:
Recommendation 14:
That art schools who have Art Theory/History as a compulsory component of their undergraduate degree program ensure that satisfactory English language support or mentoring programs are in place.
Recommendation 15:
That art schools catering for Asian students facilitate their study through access to language support structures (e.g. ESL centres).
Recommendation 16:
That, in order to minimise problems caused by adjustment to studying in Australia, a mentoring system be utilised by art schools that have Asian students.
Recommendation 17:
That art schools develop learning outcomes which can be used to inform and underpin pedagogical and curriculum development initiatives which address Asia.
Recommendation 18:
That in adopting the above recommendations art schools share their expertise through seminars, conferences and teaching exchanges.
Recommendation 19:
That schools undertake sustained and ongoing initiatives aimed a developing and maintaining curriculum material for use in Drawing and Studio which addresses Asia.
Recommendation 20:
That art schools consider the complexity and diversity of Asia and identify the areas of expertise in Asian issues among teaching staff. This information should form the basis of professional development programmes for teaching staff which target specific knowledge deficits within the staff profile.
Recommendation 21:
That when developing criteria for new teaching appointments within art schools the existing knowledge base within a school be considered so that it can be complemented rather than duplicated.
Chapter 5: Broader Issues
While broader issues such as the personal experience of Asian students in the art school are not analysed, they are listed to give a fuller context to the data analysed in the preceding chapters, and do not fall within the main concerns (i.e. curriculum development and pedagogical issues) of this study.
The topics which deal with this broader context include:
It should be emphasised however that the data should be seen as a rich potential source of information for further related investigation.
Recommendation 22:
That students be given much more guidance in terms of knowledge of where to look for material and what sort of material may be useful to them.
Recommendation 23:
That an awareness of the value of electronic material as a resource be encouraged.
Recommendation 24:
That a greater development of electronic material for availability as a resource base be investigated and encouraged.
Chapter 6: Identified Resources for the Internationalisation of Art School Curricula
The results of the questionnaires sent to art schools and to both Australian and Asian students give an indication of the material held by art schools to support internationalised curriculum development within the Asian context. A wide range of journals is held by art schools, although the number varies widely from school to school.
The majority of Art Theory /History students, both Australian and Asian, appear to believe that access to contemporary Asian material is provided only at an average or below average level. Asian Drawing students appear to concur with this belief while Australian Drawing students rate such access at an average or above average level.
The vast majority of students see reference resources as their library and the books and journals contained therein while a much smaller number of students are aware of other sources of material. Asian students seem particularly unaware of potential opportunities for resource material, reflecting some of the difficulties they may be experiencing in trying to get the best out of their educational experience in Australia. Indeed, many Australian students seem unaware of the same potential opportunities. Whether the resources are lacking or whether students are not being informed of their existence is difficult to determine.
The research would seem to indicate that students need much more guidance in terms of knowledge of where to look for material and what sort of material may be useful to them. The lack of awareness of electronic material is notable and is an area which needs to be addressed.
The second part of the chapter provides some details of identified resources which, although by no means a comprehensive survey, may prove useful to teachers and academics who wish to place greater emphasis on Asian art and artists in their teaching program.
The study also found that there exists a substantial amount of resource material which may be accessed from government arts funding bodies, State art galleries, and organisations such as Asialink.
Information was requested towards the compilation of a resource data base on Asian art to support the internationalisation of art school curricula. Each institution was asked to provide an indication of the range of resources that they had available in any of the following areas: books, exhibition catalogues, slides and videos, collections of Asian art, conferences, journals, theses on Asian art, artists’ residencies in Asia, art galleries and museums that have exhibited Asian art and visiting artist and lecture programs.
The research undertaken demonstrates that awareness of and interest in the art produced by our Asian neighbours is increasing, and that there are organisations within Australia actively involved in gathering information and material about the subject of Asian art and pursuing activities aimed at promoting greater cooperation and collaboration within the region.
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Introduction [Next Chapter] [Previous Chapter] [Contents] |
Overseas Students in Australian University Visual Arts Programs
International Development Program (IDP) Education Australia published a study in March 1995, which was conducted for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on behalf of the Department of Employment, Education and Training (DEET)2. The study, Curriculum Development for Internationalisation, contains findings from a survey of all 38 universities in Australia. The number of initiatives in the area of curriculum development towards internationalisation came to 1011. Of these each university was asked to describe up to five illustrative examples each. As a result the details of 175 individual programs (97 undergraduate and 78 postgraduate) were given. Out of this, only two were from the visual and performing arts, while Business, Economics and Commerce topped the poll with 52 examples3.
Yet when one puts this figure into a historical perspective, the figure may not seem so low. In 1984 the total number of private and government sponsored overseas students studying fine arts in Australia, in both undergraduate and postgraduate programs, was only 564. We know that in the last ten years this number has increased dramatically. For the Australian Council of University Art and Design Schools (ACUADS) seminar on international issues and intercultural communications in visual arts, held in Canberra in April 1995, the Canberra School of Art conducted a survey of the 30 art and design schools throughout Australia. Even though the response rate was low with only 13 respondents, the total number of overseas students came to 413, of whom 336 were in undergraduate programs5. Three hundred and seventy one were full fee-paying students and significantly, the majority were from Asian countries6.
Changing Approaches to Curriculum Development in Australian Art and Design Schools
Several major art schools have taken advantage of the trend of a growing overseas market for Australian university education which has as a significant segment—many sponsored and private students from Asia. These schools have developed major marketing campaigns, twinning and off-shore arrangements with Asian universities. Even the Tasmanian School of Art at Launceston—a small art school—has for several years now undertaken a modest marketing thrust into South East Asia which has resulted in a relatively high percentage of overseas students in the small overall art school student population—in 1995, nine out of 120 or 8 per cent of full-time BFA students.
While enlarging the market share for Australian art schools may be the driving force behind these activities, two recent major university art school initiatives acknowledge other more important yet basic issues in the internationalisation of university education. These include intercultural relations and communication, appropriate curriculum development and changes to pedagogical approach.
In 1994 the Australian National University allocated Quality Assurance Funds to conduct research aimed to develop strategies to improve the quality of teaching in the visual arts within an intercultural framework. In July 1995 the Canberra School of Art appointed a Senior Research Fellow to investigate the pragmatic and theoretical issues involved in intercultural learning in the visual arts context.
At the same time the Tasmanian School of Art at Launceston was awarded a DEETYA grant from its Evaluation and Investigations Program (EIP) to research the development of internationalised curricula for Australian art schools, the subject of this report.
This School has a genuine belief in the benefits of developing its approach to curriculum development as it acknowledges that significant shifts have occurred amongst Australians about their own identity and position in the world. The repositioning of emphases in art school curricula, in other words, aims to benefit overseas students from non-English speaking backgrounds as well as Australians.
The EIP Project at the Tasmanian School of Art at Launceston: Internationalising Art School Curricula
The narrowing of the investigation to curriculum development, and in particular in Art Theory/History and Drawing within the context of both accommodating Asian students and expanding our own perceptions of our geographical, economic and cultural position in the region has been in the main influenced by the School’s experience of international students.
They have mainly been Asian and mainly from Singapore and Hong Kong. They have been most interested in learning about contemporary issues and practices in art and have pointed out that the greatest difference in art education is that the teaching of Art History and Theory is much more intellectually rigorous. This does not necessarily mean however that this difference must be the universal perception amongst all Asian students. Similarly, comparative levels of technical competence, differences in education ideology and so on, between host and different countries must be taken into account.
This experience has no doubt informed the direction of the research and it is hoped that information generated through the project as well as both practical and philosophical issues so raised will offer a rationale for internationalised curriculum development in more Australian art schools.
Parameters
Because of the relative lack of research in the area of internationalisation in Australian art school curriculum development and associated pedagogical issues, the field is vast with unexplored potential. However, because of this, little prior data is available to new research as a starting point to build from. Narrowing the research to an Asian context made the scope of the research manageable within resource and time restrictions. Initially, the research was to include ‘Pacific’ countries, as part of the Asia Pacific region. This would have expanded the field of research considerably, complicating the issues of geographical demarcation and cultural proximity. Did, for example, the Pacific include New Zealand, with one part of its culture markedly Eurocentric? The decision was made to leave countries from the Pacific region out, in order to concentrate on those countries (of unique cultures yet sharing some thread of cultural commonality) broadly grouped as Asian. It may be argued that ‘Asia’ is only a European construct, contextualising Asia as Europe’s ‘other’. This same argument must position ‘Europe’ in a like way—for surely the word would imply a similar levelling out of cultural and any other difference between countries geographically located in those parts of the globe. Hence the term ‘Asia’ is instrumental rather than philosophical, geographical, historical or cultural in intent. It is used as a useful means to collectively describe students from the various countries and cultural backgrounds in the general Asian region who studied in Australian art schools during the period of this study.
Definitions
Internationalisation
The following definition has been taken from the OECD/CERI project brief ‘Education in a new international setting: Curriculum development for internationalisation—Guidelines for country case study’ (OECD/CERI 1994, p. 9):
Curricula with an international orientation in content, aimed at preparing students for performing (professionally/socially) in an international and multicultural context, and designed for domestic students as well as foreign students7.
‘Asian’ Students
This refers to full fee-paying students who have come to Australia to study from Asian countries.
The task of offering a definition of ‘Asia’ or ‘Asian’ is a thankless one. Encyclopaedic definitions of Asia reveal a large land mass encompassing something like a third of the world’s land area:
Indefinite and elastic in meaning the name has been gradually extended to embrace the whole territory between the eastern Mediterranean and the western Pacific. The term Asia is thus rooted in a Western perspective of the continent. From an Eastern perspective Europe could be seen as western peninsula of a single continent, Eurasia.
Actually, the term is of limited usefulness... by implying a unity that has rarely if ever existed, the name if of marginal worth to historians, social scientists, and scholarly students...... Since the continent is preeminently characterized by numerous unique and complex civilizations and cultures, it is doubtless misleading to speak of an Asian mind, Asian values...8
This study therefore does not presume to offer a definition of ‘Asian’. ‘Asian’ in this study refers to all countries, largely grouped as Asian, from which students have come to Australia to study art. These are countries in South Asia (including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka), Southeast Asia (southern China, Burma, the Philippines and other countries in the monsoon region), and East Asia (China proper, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and other cultures which have roots in Chinese civilisation and Confucianism)9.
Project Team
The EIP Project Team consisted of:
Methodology
Five questionnaires were devised to collect information on art school curricula, and staff and student comment on a wide range of curriculum development and pedagogical issues.
Data collected from each of the five surveys have been relevant to several of the general and specific areas under examination in each of the six first chapters of this report. Analyses of these data appear where relevant.
All questionnaires were sent to the University of Tasmania’s Ethics Committee to ensure that the questionnaires did not breach the University’s code of ethics when involving live subjects in research projects. The student questionnaires were also referred to the University’s English Language Centre, to ensure that the language used was appropriate for both Australian and students from non-English speaking backgrounds. In addition, a lecturer in Statistics was consulted frequently on the development of rationale for the collection of samples. Finally, the questionnaires were trialed for potential comprehension and other problems by selected Asian students from the University.
One difficulty was that the research has been conducted over a Northern Hemisphere academic year rather than an Australian one. This has meant that the data collected from academic staff in the first part of the research relates to 1995. In the second half of the project opinion was sought from students who would have based their responses on their experience both currently (first semester of 1996) and prior to 1996.
Questionnaire 1 (circulated to all heads of Australian art schools)
The purpose of the first stage of the project was to identify the approach by Art Schools to and their record in the areas of curriculum development in Art Theory/History, Drawing and general Studio programs. A questionnaire survey (Appendix 1) was sent to all 30 art schools in Australia. This asked for information regarding the introduction of strategies to internationalise programs as well as pedagogical practice.
At the same time, Art Theory/History syllabuses were requested from the heads of theory departments.
Questionnaire 2 (circulated to selected Asian students enrolled in an Art Theory/History unit at selected Australian art schools)
Questionnaire 3 (circulated to selected Australian students enrolled in an Art Theory/History unit at selected Australian art schools
Questionnaire 4 (circulated to selected Asian students enrolled in a Drawing unit at selected Australian art schools
Questionnaire 5 (circulated to selected Australian students enrolled in a Drawing unit at an Australian art school
To keep the sample at a realistic size and for the information to be of relevance, the following criteria were used to select the schools:
On the above basis, the total number of art schools contacted was 18 for Art Theory/History and 16 for Drawing (see Appendix 5).
The total number of Asian students in these schools would have come to approximately 333 (based on 1995 figures). The total of Australian students would have been many times higher—7339. Finally it was decided that the questionnaires would be sent to the selected schools and the Art Theory/History and Drawing Co-ordinators would target one Art Theory/History class and one Drawing class.
Acknowledgments
The Project Team received support from most art schools. This is reflected in the high response rate to an initial questionnaire survey (only one art school did not respond at all) and in the much appreciated cooperation in the administering of student questionnaires by selected art schools. Thanks are due in particular to Heads of School, Co-ordinators of Art Theory/History and Drawing, any other personnel who gave assistance, and students who took time to complete and return questionnaires.
The 6th International Conference of the Australasian Association for Institutional Research held in Perth in November/December 1995 provided a platform for some of the findings from research in progress to be disseminated. The paper presented at the conference, ‘Towards a non-Eurocentric Art History/Theory curriculum for Australian art schools’, was published in the Journal of Institutional Research in Australia, vol. 5, no. 2, September 1996, pp. 35–45.
In May this year (1996) another opportunity to report to the academic community on this research was at the Forum on Intercultural Education and the Visual Arts, organised by the Canberra School of Art in association with the Australian Council of University Art and Design Schools. Two papers were presented: Project Director, Greg Leong delivered an updated version of the Perth paper, with the research on that part of the project nearly completed, and Project Consultant, Penny Mason gave a short presentation on the Drawing component of the project. The participants at the Forum was an ideal target audience, as they were nearly all academics from Australian art schools, and so the feedback on the papers and the overall project was particularly valuable. The paper by Greg Leong is scheduled for publication by the Canberra School of Art as part of a special project, in which intercultural issues within a University visual arts context were investigated through the appointment of Senior Research Fellow, Dr Jos Hackforth-Jones.
The Project Team is also grateful to all organisations and individuals who have provided information and advice, which have been useful for the design and execution of the project. This includes, Government funding bodies, State art galleries, and specialist organisations such as Asialink and so on.
The following people from the University of Tasmania have been very helpful and generous with their time:
Finally, for their invaluable advice, special thanks are reserved for the members, both as a group and individually, of the Project Advisory Team:
Greg Leong
Project Director
July 1996