Preparing Teachers for the Challenge of Teaching Science, Mathematics and Technology in 21st Century Australia
Geoffrey A. Lawrance and David H. Palmer
EIP 03/06
© Commonwealth of Australia 2003
ISBN 0 642 77363 7
ISBN 0 642 77375 0 (electronic version)
This work is copyright. It may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or training purposes subject to the inclusion of an acknowledgment of the source and no commercial usage or sale. Reproduction for purposes other than those indicated above, requires the prior written permission from the Commonwealth available from the Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to Commonwealth Copyright Administration, GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601 or email
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This report is funded under the Evaluations and Investigations Programme of the Department of Education, Science and Training. The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Education, Science and Training.
Executive summary
This study was commissioned by the Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) as an Evaluations and Investigations Programme (EIP) project. It examined current practices and innovations in initial teacher education for science, mathematics and technology, with a view to providing guidance for meeting the challenge of teaching in these fields in the 21st century. The research team comprised Professor Geoffrey Lawrance and Dr David Palmer, of the Faculties of Science & Mathematics and Education, respectively, at the University of Newcastle, supported by a research assistant and an advisory team. The study was conducted with the cooperation of academic staff in education and deans of science in thirty-six participating universities.
The study was influenced by the view that society of the 21st century will need not only people specifically trained for science- and technology-based industries, but will need all its members to have a reasonable grasp of science and technology to live in a technologically advanced world. Teachers skilled in the sciences and mathematics, and skilled in engaging students in learning in these fields, will become increasingly important in satisfying the nation’s need for a solid broad-based education inclusive of the sciences. Further, teacher preparation must address both specialist and generalist teaching of science, mathematics and technology in primary and secondary schools. Our teachers in 21st century Australia carry the weighty responsibility of delivering courses to sustain a technologically literate society.
With such a strong reliance placed on teachers for our future, it is necessary that education of those teachers be of the highest standard. The appropriate preparation of new science, mathematics and technology teachers is an essential element of the response to these challenges. Consequently, there is a need to understand what is happening in the current preparation of these teachers, as this information will assist in the development of policy and practice in these areas.
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The project
This project explored the nature of university programs that prepare new teachers to teach science, mathematics and technology in both primary and secondary schools. It identified innovative practices in the preparation of these teachers. As an EIP project, it was primarily intended to be descriptive rather than highly analytical or judgmental. Its main intended outcome will be the sharing of information about innovative practice to inform the continuing development of teacher education programs.
To this end, the terms of reference of the project brief were to examine how teacher education programs deal with the following issues:
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The nature and level of content studies undertaken.
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Articulation between content studies and pedagogical studies in the preparation of these teachers.
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The integration of teaching theory and practice.
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Differences in teacher preparation between different types of programs.
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Skilling teacher education students in practices to develop literacy and numeracy in school students in relation to these content areas.
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The exposure of teacher education students to school projects and programs designed to improve student outcomes in their method area.
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The links between the teacher education program and business/industry.
For the purposes of this study, technology was defined as ‘design and technology’ rather than information technology. Similarly, this project was intended to focus on initial teacher education at primary and secondary level, so honours programs, early childhood programs, postgraduate certificate programs, higher degree programs or retraining programs were not generally included. Further, it was decided to adopt a relatively loose definition of innovative practice, so as to be as inclusive as possible. For the purposes of this study, innovations were considered to be changes that are designed to improve teaching and learning, and should be transferable to other institutions.
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Methodology
This project was designed to employ a mixture of methods to provide a rich description of initial science, mathematics and technology teacher education. There were two main strands employed to provide information about current teacher education programs and innovation:
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A survey of teacher education programs across Australia was carried out by telephone interviews, employing a common structured set of questions, which was subject first to trial and refinement. A total of 119 participants, who were mostly university mathematics, science and technology education specialists and program coordinators, were interviewed. The major undergraduate and graduate programs in all Australian universities offering teacher education in science, mathematics and technology in 2001 have been described.
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Thirteen case studies of innovative practice were carried out, drawing on universities across Australia. Selection of case studies was performed with close reference to information from the telephone interviews, and with regard to the terms of reference, target student group, cohort size and location. These case studies usually involved on-site interviews with university staff and students, as well as teachers and industry representatives, as appropriate.
The identification of innovative practice was aided by information from two other sources:
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Two literature reviews were carried out. The first provided general background statistical and general information about the state of teacher education in Australia and overseas, based on university, state, national and international policy, curriculum and research information. The second was a focussed review of the education research literature that related directly to the terms of reference of the project.
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Surveys of science deans and professional bodies were carried out by email, with 36 and 69 individuals or groups in each category, respectively, contacted. The purpose of this strand was to seek the views of other key non-education stakeholders, by asking them to comment on innovation in teacher education for the sciences, based on a common instrument in each case.
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Approaches to teacher education
Of the thirty-nine universities offering undergraduate degree programs in Australia, only four do not offer some program of initial teacher training. Moreover, many of the universities offer degrees in education at several campuses. One tertiary college also provides teacher education degree programs, and another college offers diplomas. Overall, undergraduate degree programs in education offered in Australia now number over one hundred, and in addition there are a range of postgraduate teacher education diploma, degree and masters programs available. The diversity of programs and courses extant is commendable, providing students with a wide range of study options. The diversity of programs offered by individual providers may lead to student cohorts in discipline specialisations being small, introducing staffing and funding constraints.
Teaching qualifications are obtained usually through one of five distinct modes, via:
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four-year (full-time or equivalent part-time) single degrees;
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four-year (full-time or equivalent part-time) double degrees, with typically approximately 50 per cent education and 50 per cent other discipline content;
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one-year (full-time or equivalent part-time) graduate diploma of education following a minimum of a three-year degree in another approved field;
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one, one-and-a-half or two years (full-time or equivalent part-time) degree in teaching following a minimum of a three-year degree in another approved field
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one-and-a-half or two year (full-time or equivalent part-time) coursework masters degree in teaching following a minimum of a three-year degree in another approved field.
The areas of specialisation for which teachers are prepared vary from university to university, with not all providers training teachers across the full spectrum of specialisations relevant to primary and secondary teaching.
It is in the preparation of pre-school, primary school and adult or vocational teachers that single degree programs are more often offered. Secondary school teacher training in a majority of states seems to be moving more towards double degree mode for student entry following acquisition of a higher school certificate (HSC) or equivalent qualification. Existing graduates seeking a teaching qualification take a second degree, graduate diploma or coursework masters pathway, with a minimum of one year and a maximum of two years of additional full-time study required. Postgraduate entrants to teacher education may still attain a teaching qualification in several states as a one-year full-time Diploma of Education, but there has been a clear shift towards progression to teaching through a second degree or even masters program in some states and institutions.
In cases where recognition of prior non-traditional learning is given, such as for special entry programs for retraining persons already in the workforce as teachers, the period of formal tertiary education is reduced.
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Primary teacher education programs
In 2001, most of the primary undergraduate programs were of the four-year Bachelor of Education type, although there were some double degree programs. They all typically had large numbers of students. In about two thirds of these programs, the science faculty was directly involved by offering content subjects or mathematics/science electives, but in the other one-third of programs, all the units were Education offerings. In almost half the programs, the students had the opportunity to study up to a major or minor of general offerings of the science faculty, but very few students typically chose this option. Stand-alone technology subjects were relatively uncommon. The curriculum method subjects were all Education offerings, and typically contained science/mathematics/technology content as well as pedagogy. Most of the programs had two to four compulsory mathematics courses (one-semester units) over the four years, and two or three compulsory science/technology courses. Students typically had 18-22 weeks of practicum over the four years, and these usually contained dispersed days as well as blocks. Some of the programs also took students to centres of informal learning, such as science centres and museums, as well as involving them in school programs such as the Maths Challenge or the Science Talent Search. Most of the institutions also had graduate programs – 10 institutions had one-year graduate programs, and 18 had two-year programs.
Innovations in primary programs included:
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the integration of mathematics and science units (which provided a model for how to integrate, as well as increasing student contact with their mathematics/science lecturers);
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the integration of mathematics and science with other learning areas to form interdisciplinary or modular approaches (with a focus on authentic, real life issues or tasks);
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the use of problem-based learning either at course level or program level (which allowed students to drive the learning process themselves);
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the use of intensive mode (for example a trimester arrangement allowed students in two-year programs to finish in 18 months);
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the combining of content and pedagogy through a variety of innovative themes, such as science in popular movies, mathematics in the community, environmental tours and integrated science themes (which provided a model for how to present content in interesting and authentic ways);
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the creation of links between theory and practice, by the use of dispersed days (ie. individual days in schools side by side with days at university) or by each teaching practice having a focus on a particular learning area, or by having university staff permanently in each practicum school, or by presenting non-practicum components in school-based mode;
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a focus on the development of positive attitudes towards science and mathematics, to overcome students’ fear and dislike of these subjects, by emphasising the use of motivating hands-on activities and the investigation of real life examples and problems within a constructivist approach; and
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visits to schools as part of curriculum method subjects, which enabled students to practise innovative teaching techniques with small groups of children
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Secondary science / mathematics teacher education programs
In these specialisations, most of the four-year undergraduate programs were of the double degree type, in which the content studies dominated the earlier years and the education studies dominated the later years (the ratio of content to education studies was typically about 50:50). However, there were typically very few students enrolled (half a dozen students in each year was fairly common). In all the undergraduate programs, the science/mathematics content was delivered by the science faculty/school and the units were standard B.Sc. offerings (or its equivalent). Students were typically required to complete a major and a minor from subjects such as physics, mathematics, biology, chemistry or Earth sciences. There was typically at least one curriculum method subject for junior high school level, and at least one other for the senior specialisations (these subjects contained some content as well as pedagogy). Most of the undergraduate programs included 16-20 weeks of practicum, much of which occurred in the latter half of the program, and which often included an internship in the fourth year.
Most institutions also had a graduate program of either one or two years (in Queensland and Tasmania, all the graduate programs were two years; there were no two-year programs in the Northern Territory or Western Australia; other states had some two-year programs). The graduate programs did not normally contain any content studies, and in most cases, were identical to the education component of the undergraduate program at the same institution. Interestingly, the one-year graduate programs often had higher enrolments than the undergraduate programs at the same institution. The two-year graduate programs typically included 16-20 weeks of practicum, but the one-year graduate programs normally had only 8-10 weeks.
Literacy and numeracy were included in nearly all of the programs, and were often located either in the general education courses and/or the curriculum methods courses. Some of the programs took students to centres of informal learning, such as science centres and museums, as well as involving them in school programs such as the Maths Challenge or the Science Talent Search.
Innovations in these secondary programs included:
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the tailoring of content studies to suit the needs of education students, by compiling a list of recommended units, or by allowing education students to modify their assignments to focus on the educational implications of the content;
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including two majors in discipline areas, rather than a major and a minor;
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the modelling of innovative teaching strategies in curriculum method courses (these particularly emphasised constructivist, student centred, hands-on and motivational approaches using techniques such as role play, discrepant events, creative writing, drama, investigations and field studies visits);
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a school-based component in curriculum method courses (which allowed students to practise innovative teaching techniques with small groups of children);
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field experiences in primary schools, to expose students to the student-centred approaches of primary teachers;
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the use of dispersed days of practicum, which allowed students to have a more consistent presence in the school;
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practicum supervision by methods lecturers, so as to create close links between the methods subjects and the practicum;
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having a focus for each practicum (which allowed students to concentrate for example on either their major or minor teaching area);
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allowing students to choose the timing of their block practica;
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including experiences in professional industries such as research laboratories, mines or other science-related enterprises; and
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the integration of information technology into programs (e.g. web-based materials, chat/discussion facilities, electronic journals and CD-ROMs).
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Secondary technology teacher education programs
Technology education programs were relatively uncommon, with only nine undergraduate programs identified (five were in NSW). Most of these were the Bachelor of Education type, for which non-education providers such as engineering faculties and TAFE offered the content studies. The content studies often comprised a design core (or design and technology major) and either one or two specialist areas to be chosen from (for example) agriculture, food technology, engineering studies, textiles and design and information technology. The arrangements for curriculum method studies and practicum were similar to those for the secondary mathematics/science education students. In addition, there were industry placement components in several of the programs. Seven one-year graduate programs and four two-year graduate programs were also identified, and many of these accepted students with industry experience rather than a university degree.
Innovations identified in these programs included:
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the inclusion of content studies in some graduate programs, or the use of bridging courses as prerequisites;
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the offering of discipline studies by Education staff, who modelled the types of teaching behaviours appropriate to the content;
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the thoughtful integration of TAFE components with university studies, so that for example, students with a trade background could start their program at TAFE, where they were in a more familiar environment which could build their confidence for university studies;
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studies which focussed on the nature of technology (which aimed at dispelling stereotypes of what technology and technology education are);
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the timing of practicum blocks by individual arrangement with each graduate student (to allow for their trade work commitments);
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a paid internship for students in schools where there were vacancies in technology;
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the use of innovative design projects which involved industry links.
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Middle school teacher education programs
There were only six programs identified for middle school or K-12 teaching, although another will be introduced in 2002. Students in these programs were able to specialise in one or two secondary learning areas, as well as all the primary learning areas. The content studies were often science faculty offerings, but the amount varied considerably. The curriculum method studies were often identical to those taken by primary education students and secondary (junior high school) courses. There were typically 18-22 weeks of teaching practice, which often included components in both primary and secondary schools. Students in these programs typically enrolled in many of these same subjects as the mainstream primary or secondary students.
These programs were noteworthy because of their use of middle schooling philosophies such as integration, flexible learning pathways, authentic learning and assessment tasks and teamwork. One of the stated advantages of middle school programs was that they would help to ease the critical shortage of mathematics teachers in schools, by freeing up the teachers with full mathematics qualifications to teach at senior levels of high school.
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Challenges, constraints and difficulties
The most common constraint or difficulty described by interviewees was lack of funding which caused pressure to, reduce contact hours with students, move towards mass lectures rather than tutorials, and reduce the in-school component of practicum.
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The case studies
At least one case study of innovative practice was chosen for each of the terms of reference. They were also selected so as to provide examples across Australia, and a representative cross-section of primary, middle school and secondary. The focus of each of the case studies was as follows:
Case Study 1 was a primary education program which allowed students an option to specialise in technology; and it also integrated the mathematics and science components (Bachelor of Education [Junior Primary and Primary] at the Underdale campus of the University of South Australia).
Case Study 2 had a focus on the characteristics of high quality teaching of discipline/content studies for secondary education students (Bachelor of Arts [Education]/Bachelor of Science, at Edith Cowan University).
Case Study 3 described the development and philosophies of a fully integrated middle school program (Bachelor of Behavioural Studies/Bachelor of Education [Middle Years of Schooling] at the University of Queensland).
Case Study 4 was an example of attitude change towards science in a primary education program (Bachelor of Education [Primary] at Central Queensland University).
Case Study 5 described a school-based, problem-based program for primary education (Knowledge Building Community [KBC] program at the University of Wollongong).
Case Study 6 described a constructivist approach to primary practicum, in which students were required to choose practicum competencies themselves (Bachelor of Teaching [Primary] at Charles Darwin University).
Case Study 7 was an example of secondary practicum supervision, in which the university supervisors were located on-site at each school, for the duration of the practicum (Bachelor of Science + Bachelor of Education [Secondary] at Murdoch University).
Case Study 8 described a masters program with a problem-based approach, for secondary education (Master of Teaching at the University of Sydney).
Case Study 9 described a non-education program, which allowed science students to have in-school experiences (Peer Tutor Program at Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University).
Case Study 10 described an interdisciplinary numeracy course (subject) in which students conducted research in schools and the community (‘Numeracy Across the Curriculum’ course at Deakin University).
Case Study 11 described a project in which students used a website which linked to a local newspaper, then developed numeracy and literacy activities to be used in schools (Bachelor of Teaching [7-12] at the University of Tasmania).
Case Study 12 described how secondary students were involved in a Landcare project as an example of authentic learning involving a school project (Bachelor of Teaching [7-12] at the University of Tasmania).
Case Study 13 described the BHP retraining program as an example of an innovative link to a major industry and the use of Recognition of Prior Learning (Bachelor of Education [Design and Technology] at the University of Newcastle).
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Conclusions and suggestions
The study was able to identify innovative practices extant across the nation, and at most of the institutions involved in teacher education. We stress that a program does not have to be innovative in order to be of high quality. However, the information in the program summaries and case studies should provide many innovative ideas to inform future development.
We identified two main types of innovations: innovations at the program level and innovations at the course (unit or subject) level. Innovations at the whole program level were relatively few, and included: the Bachelor of Behavioural Studies / Bachelor of Education [Middle Years of Schooling] at the University of Queensland; the Master of Teaching at the University of Sydney; the KBC program at the University of Wollongong; the Bachelor of Learning Management at Central Queensland University; and the Master of Teaching at Queensland University of Technology. The bulk of the innovations however, applied to particular courses within programs (e.g. an innovative mathematics unit or an innovative way of organising practice teaching) rather than to the whole program. Many of these appeared to be cases in which one or two highly motivated individuals had developed an innovative approach and were maintaining it largely by their own energy and enthusiasm.
We offer some suggestions for the directions that future innovation and research may take in the development of science, mathematics and technology initial teacher education:
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At present, secondary science education students typically have content studies in only two sciences (a major and a minor). A step forward would be to develop patterns of discipline studies that will maintain a high professional standard, but include significant preparation in the full range of junior sciences.
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Students in graduate programs are often strong in one science area, but deficient in others, so future programs should develop ways of including targeted science/mathematics content in graduate programs.
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The huge breadth of the school curriculum in design and technology has created problems for technology teacher education programs, and some streamlining should be seriously considered.
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At present, the ratio between content studies and education studies in secondary programs is normally 50:50, but whether this is the best ratio for a future teacher still needs to be established by future research.
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According to interviewees, many teachers in schools are still using traditional ‘chalk and talk’ or textbook approaches, which are at odds with the strategies advocated at university. Innovative ways to ensure that the practicum reinforces what the students learn at university are still needed in all specialisations.
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Double degree programs offer students the opportunity to complete two degrees in four years, but low enrolments show that they have not been a successful innovation for attracting students into mathematics and science teaching. Any future developments of this type of program, for mathematics and science at least, should take this factor into consideration.
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Several institutions have non-Education based programs which give ‘mainstream’ mathematics and science students experiences in schools. The potential of these programs to be linked to existing education programs should be further explored.
One of the most useful and immediately practical things that this project can do will be to let teacher educators see what other people are doing in their programs. By creating an opportunity for teacher education providers to ‘peek over the fence’ it is hoped to encourage a cross-fertilisation of ideas and a dissemination of high quality practices.
Overall, initial teacher education in science, mathematics and technology is characterised by widespread innovation in course and program development. Overall, content providers and education providers were satisfied with the level of cooperation existing between them. The major quest for the short-term future remains, however, one of finding mechanisms that will bring good students of science, mathematics and technology into teaching. The programs we have examined are of high quality and appear to be good vehicles for effective teacher education; they would be all the better with stronger cohorts of strong students.
Chapters 1 to 8 
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Appendices (563.84 KB)