There have been many studies into the nature of the processes that take place in effective schools. From a distillation of those studies and further reviews of them, there is an agreed set of characteristics of effective schools[16]. These factors should not be viewed as independent factors because there are obvious links between them. Neither should they be regarded as a checklist that will ensure effective schooling. The presence of the factors within a school simply suggests that it is more likely that the school will be regarded as being effective in achieving its goals.
Any assessment of the effectiveness of a school needs to be recognised as multi-dimensional and cannot be gauged by a single indicator[15]. Cuttance has written that the factors with the strongest impact on student learning are: classroom management, metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, home environment, student and teacher social interactions. Although other factors like curriculum design and delivery, classroom climate, school and classroom organisation have a lesser effect, they are still extremely important.
Studies in Australia
[4] have found that the key to improved educational outcomes for students is teacher effectiveness and that a given school is likely to be only as effective as the quality of classroom teaching within that school. The study reinforced the notion that teacher and classroom variables account for more of the variance in pupil achievement than school variables – ‘Learning takes place in classrooms through the interaction of students and their teachers’.
There are differences between schools on how much they concentrate on their primary purpose – teaching and learning. A focus on this main purpose has been shown to be important for a school to be effective.
Positive correlations have also been found between the measures of the amount of time devoted to learning and pupil outcomes and behaviour[17]. Academic learning time and time on task are predictors of achievement. The literature suggests that schools should, therefore, be wary of intrusions into academic time, not only because of the time lost in learning and instruction, but also because it can signal to students that other things may be more important.
Teachers’ subject knowledge is seen as an important factor influencing student outcomes. It has been found that high staff turnover and severe staff shortages in specialist areas can act as barriers to effectiveness Effective schools will manage this by encouraging teachers to embark on professional development in their teaching area or by establishing a mentoring system to provide advice and give direction. The Victorian Quality Schools Project [4] study found that the effect of teacher participation in specialist in-service programs was substantial, especially in the area of literacy.
The quality of teaching is foremost in effective schooling and there are a number of elements to this quality. Successful teachers tend to be efficient and well organised, they are clear about the purpose of their lessons and they structure their lessons. At the same time, although these factors are associated with effectiveness, it has been shown that student learning is enhanced when teachers are aware of differences in students’ learning styles and can use appropriate strategies. In many cases this requires flexibility on the part of teachers and a willingness to adapt their teaching style[18].
In summaries of research about school effectiveness, Joyce[19] and Creemers [20] concluded that effective teachers:
- present information or skills clearly and enthusiastically;
- are non-judgemental and relaxed;
- keep the lessons task-oriented;
- regularly teach the class as a whole;
- have expectations for students to achieve;
- relate comfortably to the students;
- provide positive feedback;
- have good lesson structure through emphasising key points;
- are constantly checking for pupil understanding to establish the appropriateness of instruction;
- use a high quantity of high quality questioning; and
- motivate the students through probing and elaborating on their answers.
Research has also shown that teacher-pupil relationships in the classroom can be enhanced by shared activities outside the classroom[21]. This could be in the form of working towards a common goal such as a school drama or music production, or a special project such as a competition, or a sporting activity. The relationship between teachers and students has been found to be significant in achievement outcomes[14].
Almost all studies in this area have shown that professional leadership by the principal contributes positively to school effectiveness. It has been found that no one particular style of leadership is appropriate across all schools, but rather that successful principals can find a style that is most suited to their own school and local situation
[22]. Effective leadership is usually ‘firm and purposeful’. Effective principals are usually those who are active, are good initiators and also protective of the school from unhelpful external influences.
Research has shown that principals who can share leadership responsibilities and involve teachers in decision-making processes will build a sense of unity in their senior management team and amongst their staff, which will contribute positively to school effectiveness[23].
Another factor regarding effective leadership in schools is the notion that the principal is not just a senior administrator, but is an educational and instructional leader with expertise in teaching and learning[24]. The principal should have knowledge and experience of what happens in the classroom, should know and be able to suggest teaching strategies and assessment procedures.
It has also been found that leadership support is critically important in establishing a positive work environment for teachers and thus maintaining a high level of morale[4].
It appears that a good leader is neither too autocratic, nor too democratic and can make clear decisions when needed, but involve others in the decision making process appropriately.
The psychosocial climate that students work in is important. Successful schools are more likely to be calm places rather than chaotic, to be task oriented and have an orderly climate. The research shows that schools do not necessarily become more effective just because they have an orderly environment, but rather this type of environment is a precursor for effective learning to occur.
Establishing this orderly environment can be achieved through a clear set of guidelines, agreed on by teachers and students, rather than the imposition of a strict set of rules and regulations decided on by the principal. It appears that the most effective way of achieving order and purpose is through positive reinforcement of good learning and behaviour patterns.
A positive learning environment will depend on the creation of positive communication between students, teachers and principal.
It has also been found[3] that the physical environment of a school can affect the students’ attitudes and behaviour, which, in turn, can influence levels of achievement.
Effective teachers and schools have high expectations of their students and communicate these expectations clearly to the students and set challenges that match these expectations and then assist the students to meet them. The creation of a partnership between student, school and parent, who all have high expectations of the students, can be a powerful one.
Research also suggests that the reverse is true – low school and teacher expectations of students are associated with reduced outcomes[25]. Like most of the factors discussed here, high expectations alone will not raise effectiveness, but taken in the context of a positive encouraging learning environment, expectations form an important part of being an effective school.
High expectations can also be supported through a process of scaffolding. This is where students who may have fallen behind in literacy skills for their year group are assisted to reach an appropriate level[26]. This has worked effectively in Australia, with a large number of Indigenous students, whose teachers provide support and direction for the students to engage with literature.
When students do the right thing, effective schools will reinforce that pattern. This applies, not only to the student’s behaviour in class or around the school, but also to their academic pursuits. Studies have shown good behaviour in a school results when students feel part of the school and engage with it, rather than the imposition of a strict set of punishments and sanctions. Effective schools involve parents in a partnership to help manage their child’s approach to school.
Feedback to students on their academic progress has a positive effect and if the feedback takes the form of public praise with awards and prizes, it can have a positive effect on other students too.
Effective schools tend to have well-established mechanisms for monitoring students’ progress in the classroom, for evaluating the school’s performance as a whole and to have improvement programmes for teachers in place. Effective teachers have accurate, up-to-date records of student performance and inform and involve the students in the process. The students will get to know the areas of their work in which they are succeeding and the areas that need improvement.
Monitoring progress is just one part of the educative process – effective schools guard against the over-use of assessment procedures which could lead to a shift of focus away from teaching and learning processes – testing by itself is not teaching. To maximise the learning effect of assessment, teachers in effective schools will provide clear and informative feedback to pupils.
In effective schools, teachers avoid the use of negative, public criticism of students whose performance in an assessment is poor.
The involvement of students in decision making processes and ensuring they have the opportunity to take on positions of responsibility and leadership can lead to their improved self-esteem and a positive attitude to school.
This can happen through formal structures such as a student representative council, or through informal practices in the classroom by teachers to ensure that students are given responsibility.
While it may seem obvious that schools are places of learning, this sense is heightened if principals, teachers and senior managers keep up-to-date with their subject areas, advances in classroom practices and managing technology. Schools can facilitate this through embarking on professional development schemes to improve practices within the school or by encouraging and enabling teachers to take an active role in their own learning outside the school. The most effective means of professional development are based on processes that occur at the school and which involve teachers in considering issues directly related to the process of student learning at their school. Research has shown that one-off presentations by outside experts can actually be counter-productive
[27].
If teachers are successful in gaining educational awards outside school, then recognition of these achievements in learning also sends a powerful message to students.
It is also important for teaching staff to be informed about changes occurring outside the school which may affect them and their students (for example, changes to curriculum frameworks, assessment or, in the case of upper secondary, tertiary entrance practices).
It has been found that parental involvement in parent/teacher interviews, attendance at information evenings and other activities connected with monitoring their child’s progress have a positive effect on students attitudes, behaviour and learning
[4]. Strategies to encourage this participation are significant in the school being effective. Although it has been found that parental involvement in academic matters is higher in primary schools than in secondary schools, effective schools manage to encourage parent participation in other areas too. A positive partnership between school-parent-child can communicate the importance of education to the child.